The History of Modern Architecture Essay Example For Students

The History of Modern Architecture Essay With the onset of the nineteenth century, the world was thrust into a new era of industrial productivity. The industrial revolution brought an influx of innovation that rapidly and forever changed the industrial landscape of the world. From the advanced cultures of western civilization to regions of instability and poverty, new technologies that spawned from the industrial revolution had everlasting impacts. The industrial revolution had a vast array of effects on architectural practices, ranging from architectural style to construction materials, which benefited society as a whole. Never before seen construction materials were what highlighted the architectural revolutions during the industrial revolution. Before the nineteenth century, primitive building materials such as brick, wood, and stone were all that were used to create any sort of shelter. As the industrial realm began to expand, metals such as iron were then able to be mined in vast quantities â€Å"and replace wood, brick, and stone as primary materials for large buildings† (Building Design/Architecture). Charles Bage, a mill owner from Britain, was a pioneer in the use of iron as a replacement for such primitive materials. We will write a custom essay on The History of Modern Architecture specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now His original architectural design, which he created in 1796 and was known as the â€Å"fireproof design, made use of cast iron, brick, and flagstone to greatly increase the strength of his mill, which allowed for the accommodation of larger and heavier machinery. Although his design proved unreliable, due to the collapse of several mills in Great Britain, â€Å"it was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, did the use of iron in industrial architecture become widespread† (Structures and Technology). As architects began to perfect preserving the structural integrity of their designs, doors to new opportunities of design began to open. With materials such as iron and glass already in mass circulation and use, around halfway through the nineteenth century, a material so critical and influential drastically changed the process of industrialization: steel. â€Å"Before the industrial revolution, buildings with multiple stories were supported solely by their walls† (Modern Architecture). With a much more urban society beginning to form, a need for bigger and taller buildings developed. Because of this, a phenomenon known as vertical urbanization began to take hold of cities worldwide. Vertical urbanization literally means building upward, as in making buildings taller rather than making a larger quantity of smaller buildings. The use of vertical urbanization saves vast amounts of land, and is much more economically beneficial than traditional horizontal urbanization. Vertical urbanization rendered the practice of resting all the weight of a building on its walls completely obsolete, and made steel arguably the single most important product to be bought and sold on a worldwide scale. The mass production of steel was the main driving force behind the ability to build skyscrapers during the mid 1880s† (Building Design/Architecture). â€Å" A combination of steel and reinforced concrete allowed for the building of skyscrapers† (Sreekanth 1). The steel frame provides stability throughout the skyscraper while evenly distributing the weight of the building. William Le Baron Jenney is credited with building the first skyscraper in America, in 1884. Soon after, skyscrapers would begin to take over downtown and commercial areas of most major cities worldwide. Thanks to the industrial revolution, steel was made readily available, and allowed for the incorporation of skyscrapers into the urban landscape. From the beginning of civilization to right before the nineteenth century, architecture was just as much of a form of art as painting a picture is. For every building constructed, a specific plan would be formulated by an architect and the construction would follow the architect’s vision, thus creating a one of a kind structure. But as the Industrial revolution gripped the world, the artistic aspect of architecture essentially disappeared. .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .postImageUrl , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:hover , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:visited , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:active { border:0!important; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:active , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: History On Amazing Grace EssayFor the most part, buildings were standardized; meaning that parts used for construction would be mass produced resulting in a very homogenous look for buildings of the same functionality. Construction companies would focus on building cheaper and faster rather than originality or making buildings pleasing to the eye. Even if some artistic aspects were to be added for visual purposes, they would be from a production line with thousands of others exactly like them. For instance, â€Å"All the beams and columns were mass produced were mass produced to standardized designs† (The Industrial Revolution 1080-1900). This shows how even columns that were supposed to be representing traditional Roman architectural style were stripped of all craftsmanship and originality. Even so, architects and their skills were still needed. â€Å"Architects to design canals, tunnels, bridges, and railroad stations were in high demand† (Design Presentation). The difference was that these architects were generally not hired to create original works, but simply to put up bridges and tunnels that would get the job done. Some architects however, did not feel inclined to conform to the new phenomenon of industrial architecture. Many architects separated and formed their own factions dedicated to restoring the art to architecture. One such group, called â€Å"The Royal Institute of Bristol Architects, tended to focus on designing art galleries, houses for the rich, law courts, libraries, and so forth† (The Industrial Revolution 1780-1900). Due to such factions being created, a divide began to emerge between the two separate types of architects. As the human race continues to progress, the architecture created by us continues to change and evolve to fit our needs. The Industrial Revolution was a time period of critical change that overall caused architecture to change as well, for the better. Besides losing some romantic characteristics, architectural practices changed to better suit the needs of humanity due to the Industrial Revolution and architectural practices will continue to evolve to meet the demands of humanity for as long as humanity exists. Bibliography: â€Å"Building Design/ Architecture – The Industrial Revolution-new Materials.† Science.jrank.org. Net Industries, n.d. Web. 11 Feb. 2014 â€Å"Impact of Industrial Revolution on Architectural Design.† Designpresentation.com. DesignPresentation Associates, Inc, 10 Oct. 2012. Web 13 Feb. 2014 â€Å"Modern Architecture.† Library.thinkquest.org. Oracle Foundation, n.d. Web. 13 Feb. 2014. P.S., Sreekanth. â€Å"Impact of Industrial Revoltuion on Architecture.† The Archi Blog. N.p., 2 June 2011. Web. 13 Feb. 2014. Architecture The Industrial Revolution. M9-Architecture and the Industrial Revolution: Art Appreciation. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2014. Structures and Technolgy. Boundless. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2014.  . The Industrial Revolution 1780 1900. Berkeley Methodology. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2014. The History of Modern Architecture Essay Example For Students The History of Modern Architecture Essay With the onset of the nineteenth century, the world was thrust into a new era of industrial productivity. The industrial revolution brought an influx of innovation that rapidly and forever changed the industrial landscape of the world. From the advanced cultures of western civilization to regions of instability and poverty, new technologies that spawned from the industrial revolution had everlasting impacts. The industrial revolution had a vast array of effects on architectural practices, ranging from architectural style to construction materials, which benefited society as a whole. Never before seen construction materials were what highlighted the architectural revolutions during the industrial revolution. Before the nineteenth century, primitive building materials such as brick, wood, and stone were all that were used to create any sort of shelter. As the industrial realm began to expand, metals such as iron were then able to be mined in vast quantities â€Å"and replace wood, brick, and stone as primary materials for large buildings† (Building Design/Architecture). Charles Bage, a mill owner from Britain, was a pioneer in the use of iron as a replacement for such primitive materials. We will write a custom essay on The History of Modern Architecture specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now His original architectural design, which he created in 1796 and was known as the â€Å"fireproof design, made use of cast iron, brick, and flagstone to greatly increase the strength of his mill, which allowed for the accommodation of larger and heavier machinery. Although his design proved unreliable, due to the collapse of several mills in Great Britain, â€Å"it was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, did the use of iron in industrial architecture become widespread† (Structures and Technology). As architects began to perfect preserving the structural integrity of their designs, doors to new opportunities of design began to open. With materials such as iron and glass already in mass circulation and use, around halfway through the nineteenth century, a material so critical and influential drastically changed the process of industrialization: steel. â€Å"Before the industrial revolution, buildings with multiple stories were supported solely by their walls† (Modern Architecture). With a much more urban society beginning to form, a need for bigger and taller buildings developed. Because of this, a phenomenon known as vertical urbanization began to take hold of cities worldwide. Vertical urbanization literally means building upward, as in making buildings taller rather than making a larger quantity of smaller buildings. The use of vertical urbanization saves vast amounts of land, and is much more economically beneficial than traditional horizontal urbanization. Vertical urbanization rendered the practice of resting all the weight of a building on its walls completely obsolete, and made steel arguably the single most important product to be bought and sold on a worldwide scale. The mass production of steel was the main driving force behind the ability to build skyscrapers during the mid 1880s† (Building Design/Architecture). â€Å" A combination of steel and reinforced concrete allowed for the building of skyscrapers† (Sreekanth 1). The steel frame provides stability throughout the skyscraper while evenly distributing the weight of the building. William Le Baron Jenney is credited with building the first skyscraper in America, in 1884. Soon after, skyscrapers would begin to take over downtown and commercial areas of most major cities worldwide. Thanks to the industrial revolution, steel was made readily available, and allowed for the incorporation of skyscrapers into the urban landscape. From the beginning of civilization to right before the nineteenth century, architecture was just as much of a form of art as painting a picture is. For every building constructed, a specific plan would be formulated by an architect and the construction would follow the architect’s vision, thus creating a one of a kind structure. But as the Industrial revolution gripped the world, the artistic aspect of architecture essentially disappeared. .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .postImageUrl , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:hover , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:visited , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:active { border:0!important; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:active , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: History On Amazing Grace EssayFor the most part, buildings were standardized; meaning that parts used for construction would be mass produced resulting in a very homogenous look for buildings of the same functionality. Construction companies would focus on building cheaper and faster rather than originality or making buildings pleasing to the eye. Even if some artistic aspects were to be added for visual purposes, they would be from a production line with thousands of others exactly like them. For instance, â€Å"All the beams and columns were mass produced were mass produced to standardized designs† (The Industrial Revolution 1080-1900). This shows how even columns that were supposed to be representing traditional Roman architectural style were stripped of all craftsmanship and originality. Even so, architects and their skills were still needed. â€Å"Architects to design canals, tunnels, bridges, and railroad stations were in high demand† (Design Presentation). The difference was that these architects were generally not hired to create original works, but simply to put up bridges and tunnels that would get the job done. Some architects however, did not feel inclined to conform to the new phenomenon of industrial architecture. Many architects separated and formed their own factions dedicated to restoring the art to architecture. One such group, called â€Å"The Royal Institute of Bristol Architects, tended to focus on designing art galleries, houses for the rich, law courts, libraries, and so forth† (The Industrial Revolution 1780-1900). Due to such factions being created, a divide began to emerge between the two separate types of architects. As the human race continues to progress, the architecture created by us continues to change and evolve to fit our needs. The Industrial Revolution was a time period of critical change that overall caused architecture to change as well, for the better. Besides losing some romantic characteristics, architectural practices changed to better suit the needs of humanity due to the Industrial Revolution and architectural practices will continue to evolve to meet the demands of humanity for as long as humanity exists. Bibliography: â€Å"Building Design/ Architecture – The Industrial Revolution-new Materials.† Science.jrank.org. Net Industries, n.d. Web. 11 Feb. 2014 â€Å"Impact of Industrial Revolution on Architectural Design.† Designpresentation.com. DesignPresentation Associates, Inc, 10 Oct. 2012. Web 13 Feb. 2014 â€Å"Modern Architecture.† Library.thinkquest.org. Oracle Foundation, n.d. Web. 13 Feb. 2014. P.S., Sreekanth. â€Å"Impact of Industrial Revoltuion on Architecture.† The Archi Blog. N.p., 2 June 2011. Web. 13 Feb. 2014. Architecture The Industrial Revolution. M9-Architecture and the Industrial Revolution: Art Appreciation. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2014. Structures and Technolgy. Boundless. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2014.  . The Industrial Revolution 1780 1900. Berkeley Methodology. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2014. The History of Modern Architecture Essay Example For Students The History of Modern Architecture Essay With the onset of the nineteenth century, the world was thrust into a new era of industrial productivity. The industrial revolution brought an influx of innovation that rapidly and forever changed the industrial landscape of the world. From the advanced cultures of western civilization to regions of instability and poverty, new technologies that spawned from the industrial revolution had everlasting impacts. The industrial revolution had a vast array of effects on architectural practices, ranging from architectural style to construction materials, which benefited society as a whole. Never before seen construction materials were what highlighted the architectural revolutions during the industrial revolution. Before the nineteenth century, primitive building materials such as brick, wood, and stone were all that were used to create any sort of shelter. As the industrial realm began to expand, metals such as iron were then able to be mined in vast quantities â€Å"and replace wood, brick, and stone as primary materials for large buildings† (Building Design/Architecture). Charles Bage, a mill owner from Britain, was a pioneer in the use of iron as a replacement for such primitive materials. We will write a custom essay on The History of Modern Architecture specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now His original architectural design, which he created in 1796 and was known as the â€Å"fireproof design, made use of cast iron, brick, and flagstone to greatly increase the strength of his mill, which allowed for the accommodation of larger and heavier machinery. Although his design proved unreliable, due to the collapse of several mills in Great Britain, â€Å"it was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, did the use of iron in industrial architecture become widespread† (Structures and Technology). As architects began to perfect preserving the structural integrity of their designs, doors to new opportunities of design began to open. With materials such as iron and glass already in mass circulation and use, around halfway through the nineteenth century, a material so critical and influential drastically changed the process of industrialization: steel. â€Å"Before the industrial revolution, buildings with multiple stories were supported solely by their walls† (Modern Architecture). With a much more urban society beginning to form, a need for bigger and taller buildings developed. Because of this, a phenomenon known as vertical urbanization began to take hold of cities worldwide. Vertical urbanization literally means building upward, as in making buildings taller rather than making a larger quantity of smaller buildings. The use of vertical urbanization saves vast amounts of land, and is much more economically beneficial than traditional horizontal urbanization. Vertical urbanization rendered the practice of resting all the weight of a building on its walls completely obsolete, and made steel arguably the single most important product to be bought and sold on a worldwide scale. The mass production of steel was the main driving force behind the ability to build skyscrapers during the mid 1880s† (Building Design/Architecture). â€Å" A combination of steel and reinforced concrete allowed for the building of skyscrapers† (Sreekanth 1). The steel frame provides stability throughout the skyscraper while evenly distributing the weight of the building. William Le Baron Jenney is credited with building the first skyscraper in America, in 1884. Soon after, skyscrapers would begin to take over downtown and commercial areas of most major cities worldwide. Thanks to the industrial revolution, steel was made readily available, and allowed for the incorporation of skyscrapers into the urban landscape. From the beginning of civilization to right before the nineteenth century, architecture was just as much of a form of art as painting a picture is. For every building constructed, a specific plan would be formulated by an architect and the construction would follow the architect’s vision, thus creating a one of a kind structure. But as the Industrial revolution gripped the world, the artistic aspect of architecture essentially disappeared. .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .postImageUrl , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:hover , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:visited , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:active { border:0!important; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:active , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: History On Amazing Grace EssayFor the most part, buildings were standardized; meaning that parts used for construction would be mass produced resulting in a very homogenous look for buildings of the same functionality. Construction companies would focus on building cheaper and faster rather than originality or making buildings pleasing to the eye. Even if some artistic aspects were to be added for visual purposes, they would be from a production line with thousands of others exactly like them. For instance, â€Å"All the beams and columns were mass produced were mass produced to standardized designs† (The Industrial Revolution 1080-1900). This shows how even columns that were supposed to be representing traditional Roman architectural style were stripped of all craftsmanship and originality. Even so, architects and their skills were still needed. â€Å"Architects to design canals, tunnels, bridges, and railroad stations were in high demand† (Design Presentation). The difference was that these architects were generally not hired to create original works, but simply to put up bridges and tunnels that would get the job done. Some architects however, did not feel inclined to conform to the new phenomenon of industrial architecture. Many architects separated and formed their own factions dedicated to restoring the art to architecture. One such group, called â€Å"The Royal Institute of Bristol Architects, tended to focus on designing art galleries, houses for the rich, law courts, libraries, and so forth† (The Industrial Revolution 1780-1900). Due to such factions being created, a divide began to emerge between the two separate types of architects. As the human race continues to progress, the architecture created by us continues to change and evolve to fit our needs. The Industrial Revolution was a time period of critical change that overall caused architecture to change as well, for the better. Besides losing some romantic characteristics, architectural practices changed to better suit the needs of humanity due to the Industrial Revolution and architectural practices will continue to evolve to meet the demands of humanity for as long as humanity exists. Bibliography: â€Å"Building Design/ Architecture – The Industrial Revolution-new Materials.† Science.jrank.org. Net Industries, n.d. Web. 11 Feb. 2014 â€Å"Impact of Industrial Revolution on Architectural Design.† Designpresentation.com. DesignPresentation Associates, Inc, 10 Oct. 2012. Web 13 Feb. 2014 â€Å"Modern Architecture.† Library.thinkquest.org. Oracle Foundation, n.d. Web. 13 Feb. 2014. P.S., Sreekanth. â€Å"Impact of Industrial Revoltuion on Architecture.† The Archi Blog. N.p., 2 June 2011. Web. 13 Feb. 2014. Architecture The Industrial Revolution. M9-Architecture and the Industrial Revolution: Art Appreciation. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2014. Structures and Technolgy. Boundless. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2014.  . The Industrial Revolution 1780 1900. Berkeley Methodology. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2014. The History of Modern Architecture Essay Example For Students The History of Modern Architecture Essay With the onset of the nineteenth century, the world was thrust into a new era of industrial productivity. The industrial revolution brought an influx of innovation that rapidly and forever changed the industrial landscape of the world. From the advanced cultures of western civilization to regions of instability and poverty, new technologies that spawned from the industrial revolution had everlasting impacts. The industrial revolution had a vast array of effects on architectural practices, ranging from architectural style to construction materials, which benefited society as a whole. Never before seen construction materials were what highlighted the architectural revolutions during the industrial revolution. Before the nineteenth century, primitive building materials such as brick, wood, and stone were all that were used to create any sort of shelter. As the industrial realm began to expand, metals such as iron were then able to be mined in vast quantities â€Å"and replace wood, brick, and stone as primary materials for large buildings† (Building Design/Architecture). Charles Bage, a mill owner from Britain, was a pioneer in the use of iron as a replacement for such primitive materials. We will write a custom essay on The History of Modern Architecture specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now His original architectural design, which he created in 1796 and was known as the â€Å"fireproof design, made use of cast iron, brick, and flagstone to greatly increase the strength of his mill, which allowed for the accommodation of larger and heavier machinery. Although his design proved unreliable, due to the collapse of several mills in Great Britain, â€Å"it was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, did the use of iron in industrial architecture become widespread† (Structures and Technology). As architects began to perfect preserving the structural integrity of their designs, doors to new opportunities of design began to open. With materials such as iron and glass already in mass circulation and use, around halfway through the nineteenth century, a material so critical and influential drastically changed the process of industrialization: steel. â€Å"Before the industrial revolution, buildings with multiple stories were supported solely by their walls† (Modern Architecture). With a much more urban society beginning to form, a need for bigger and taller buildings developed. Because of this, a phenomenon known as vertical urbanization began to take hold of cities worldwide. Vertical urbanization literally means building upward, as in making buildings taller rather than making a larger quantity of smaller buildings. The use of vertical urbanization saves vast amounts of land, and is much more economically beneficial than traditional horizontal urbanization. Vertical urbanization rendered the practice of resting all the weight of a building on its walls completely obsolete, and made steel arguably the single most important product to be bought and sold on a worldwide scale. The mass production of steel was the main driving force behind the ability to build skyscrapers during the mid 1880s† (Building Design/Architecture). â€Å" A combination of steel and reinforced concrete allowed for the building of skyscrapers† (Sreekanth 1). The steel frame provides stability throughout the skyscraper while evenly distributing the weight of the building. William Le Baron Jenney is credited with building the first skyscraper in America, in 1884. Soon after, skyscrapers would begin to take over downtown and commercial areas of most major cities worldwide. Thanks to the industrial revolution, steel was made readily available, and allowed for the incorporation of skyscrapers into the urban landscape. From the beginning of civilization to right before the nineteenth century, architecture was just as much of a form of art as painting a picture is. For every building constructed, a specific plan would be formulated by an architect and the construction would follow the architect’s vision, thus creating a one of a kind structure. But as the Industrial revolution gripped the world, the artistic aspect of architecture essentially disappeared. .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .postImageUrl , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:hover , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:visited , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:active { border:0!important; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:active , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: History On Amazing Grace EssayFor the most part, buildings were standardized; meaning that parts used for construction would be mass produced resulting in a very homogenous look for buildings of the same functionality. Construction companies would focus on building cheaper and faster rather than originality or making buildings pleasing to the eye. Even if some artistic aspects were to be added for visual purposes, they would be from a production line with thousands of others exactly like them. For instance, â€Å"All the beams and columns were mass produced were mass produced to standardized designs† (The Industrial Revolution 1080-1900). This shows how even columns that were supposed to be representing traditional Roman architectural style were stripped of all craftsmanship and originality. Even so, architects and their skills were still needed. â€Å"Architects to design canals, tunnels, bridges, and railroad stations were in high demand† (Design Presentation). The difference was that these architects were generally not hired to create original works, but simply to put up bridges and tunnels that would get the job done. Some architects however, did not feel inclined to conform to the new phenomenon of industrial architecture. Many architects separated and formed their own factions dedicated to restoring the art to architecture. One such group, called â€Å"The Royal Institute of Bristol Architects, tended to focus on designing art galleries, houses for the rich, law courts, libraries, and so forth† (The Industrial Revolution 1780-1900). Due to such factions being created, a divide began to emerge between the two separate types of architects. As the human race continues to progress, the architecture created by us continues to change and evolve to fit our needs. The Industrial Revolution was a time period of critical change that overall caused architecture to change as well, for the better. Besides losing some romantic characteristics, architectural practices changed to better suit the needs of humanity due to the Industrial Revolution and architectural practices will continue to evolve to meet the demands of humanity for as long as humanity exists. Bibliography: â€Å"Building Design/ Architecture – The Industrial Revolution-new Materials.† Science.jrank.org. Net Industries, n.d. Web. 11 Feb. 2014 â€Å"Impact of Industrial Revolution on Architectural Design.† Designpresentation.com. DesignPresentation Associates, Inc, 10 Oct. 2012. Web 13 Feb. 2014 â€Å"Modern Architecture.† Library.thinkquest.org. Oracle Foundation, n.d. Web. 13 Feb. 2014. P.S., Sreekanth. â€Å"Impact of Industrial Revoltuion on Architecture.† The Archi Blog. N.p., 2 June 2011. Web. 13 Feb. 2014. Architecture The Industrial Revolution. M9-Architecture and the Industrial Revolution: Art Appreciation. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2014. Structures and Technolgy. Boundless. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2014.  . The Industrial Revolution 1780 1900. Berkeley Methodology. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2014. The History of Modern Architecture Essay Example For Students The History of Modern Architecture Essay With the onset of the nineteenth century, the world was thrust into a new era of industrial productivity. The industrial revolution brought an influx of innovation that rapidly and forever changed the industrial landscape of the world. From the advanced cultures of western civilization to regions of instability and poverty, new technologies that spawned from the industrial revolution had everlasting impacts. The industrial revolution had a vast array of effects on architectural practices, ranging from architectural style to construction materials, which benefited society as a whole. Never before seen construction materials were what highlighted the architectural revolutions during the industrial revolution. Before the nineteenth century, primitive building materials such as brick, wood, and stone were all that were used to create any sort of shelter. As the industrial realm began to expand, metals such as iron were then able to be mined in vast quantities â€Å"and replace wood, brick, and stone as primary materials for large buildings† (Building Design/Architecture). Charles Bage, a mill owner from Britain, was a pioneer in the use of iron as a replacement for such primitive materials. We will write a custom essay on The History of Modern Architecture specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now His original architectural design, which he created in 1796 and was known as the â€Å"fireproof design, made use of cast iron, brick, and flagstone to greatly increase the strength of his mill, which allowed for the accommodation of larger and heavier machinery. Although his design proved unreliable, due to the collapse of several mills in Great Britain, â€Å"it was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, did the use of iron in industrial architecture become widespread† (Structures and Technology). As architects began to perfect preserving the structural integrity of their designs, doors to new opportunities of design began to open. With materials such as iron and glass already in mass circulation and use, around halfway through the nineteenth century, a material so critical and influential drastically changed the process of industrialization: steel. â€Å"Before the industrial revolution, buildings with multiple stories were supported solely by their walls† (Modern Architecture). With a much more urban society beginning to form, a need for bigger and taller buildings developed. Because of this, a phenomenon known as vertical urbanization began to take hold of cities worldwide. Vertical urbanization literally means building upward, as in making buildings taller rather than making a larger quantity of smaller buildings. The use of vertical urbanization saves vast amounts of land, and is much more economically beneficial than traditional horizontal urbanization. Vertical urbanization rendered the practice of resting all the weight of a building on its walls completely obsolete, and made steel arguably the single most important product to be bought and sold on a worldwide scale. The mass production of steel was the main driving force behind the ability to build skyscrapers during the mid 1880s† (Building Design/Architecture). â€Å" A combination of steel and reinforced concrete allowed for the building of skyscrapers† (Sreekanth 1). The steel frame provides stability throughout the skyscraper while evenly distributing the weight of the building. William Le Baron Jenney is credited with building the first skyscraper in America, in 1884. Soon after, skyscrapers would begin to take over downtown and commercial areas of most major cities worldwide. Thanks to the industrial revolution, steel was made readily available, and allowed for the incorporation of skyscrapers into the urban landscape. From the beginning of civilization to right before the nineteenth century, architecture was just as much of a form of art as painting a picture is. For every building constructed, a specific plan would be formulated by an architect and the construction would follow the architect’s vision, thus creating a one of a kind structure. But as the Industrial revolution gripped the world, the artistic aspect of architecture essentially disappeared. .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .postImageUrl , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:hover , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:visited , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:active { border:0!important; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:active , .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1 .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u7c861e150b5b4e82115f77f97fb5fae1:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: History On Amazing Grace EssayFor the most part, buildings were standardized; meaning that parts used for construction would be mass produced resulting in a very homogenous look for buildings of the same functionality. Construction companies would focus on building cheaper and faster rather than originality or making buildings pleasing to the eye. Even if some artistic aspects were to be added for visual purposes, they would be from a production line with thousands of others exactly like them. For instance, â€Å"All the beams and columns were mass produced were mass produced to standardized designs† (The Industrial Revolution 1080-1900). This shows how even columns that were supposed to be representing traditional Roman architectural style were stripped of all craftsmanship and originality. Even so, architects and their skills were still needed. â€Å"Architects to design canals, tunnels, bridges, and railroad stations were in high demand† (Design Presentation). The difference was that these architects were generally not hired to create original works, but simply to put up bridges and tunnels that would get the job done. Some architects however, did not feel inclined to conform to the new phenomenon of industrial architecture. Many architects separated and formed their own factions dedicated to restoring the art to architecture. One such group, called â€Å"The Royal Institute of Bristol Architects, tended to focus on designing art galleries, houses for the rich, law courts, libraries, and so forth† (The Industrial Revolution 1780-1900). Due to such factions being created, a divide began to emerge between the two separate types of architects. As the human race continues to progress, the architecture created by us continues to change and evolve to fit our needs. The Industrial Revolution was a time period of critical change that overall caused architecture to change as well, for the better. Besides losing some romantic characteristics, architectural practices changed to better suit the needs of humanity due to the Industrial Revolution and architectural practices will continue to evolve to meet the demands of humanity for as long as humanity exists. Bibliography: â€Å"Building Design/ Architecture – The Industrial Revolution-new Materials.† Science.jrank.org. Net Industries, n.d. Web. 11 Feb. 2014 â€Å"Impact of Industrial Revolution on Architectural Design.† Designpresentation.com. DesignPresentation Associates, Inc, 10 Oct. 2012. Web 13 Feb. 2014 â€Å"Modern Architecture.† Library.thinkquest.org. Oracle Foundation, n.d. Web. 13 Feb. 2014. P.S., Sreekanth. â€Å"Impact of Industrial Revoltuion on Architecture.† The Archi Blog. N.p., 2 June 2011. Web. 13 Feb. 2014. Architecture The Industrial Revolution. M9-Architecture and the Industrial Revolution: Art Appreciation. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2014. Structures and Technolgy. Boundless. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2014.  . The Industrial Revolution 1780 1900. Berkeley Methodology. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2014. The History of Modern Architecture Essay Example For Students The History of Modern Architecture Essay With the onset of the nineteenth century, the world was thrust into a new era of industrial productivity. The industrial revolution brought an influx of innovation that rapidly and forever changed the industrial landscape of the world. From the advanced cultures of western civilization to regions of instability and poverty, new technologies that spawned from the industrial revolution had everlasting impacts. The industrial revolution had a vast array of effects on architectural practices, ranging from architectural style to construction materials, which benefited society as a whole. Never before seen construction materials were what highlighted the architectural revolutions during the industrial revolution. Before the nineteenth century, primitive building materials such as brick, wood, and stone were all that were used to create any sort of shelter. As the industrial realm began to expand, metals such as iron were then able to be mined in vast quantities â€Å"and replace wood, brick, and stone as primary materials for large buildings† (Building Design/Architecture). Charles Bage, a mill owner from Britain, was a pioneer in the use of iron as a replacement for such primitive materials. We will write a custom essay on The History of Modern Architecture specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now His original architectural design, which he created in 1796 and was known as the â€Å"fireproof design, made use of cast iron, brick, and flagstone to greatly increase the strength of his mill, which allowed for the accommodation of larger and heavier machinery. Although his design proved unreliable, due to the collapse of several mills in Great Britain, â€Å"it was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, did the use of iron in industrial architecture become widespread† (Structures and Technology). As architects began to perfect preserving the structural integrity of their designs, doors to new opportunities of design began to open. With materials such as iron and glass already in mass circulation and use, around halfway through the nineteenth century, a material so critical and influential drastically changed the process of industrialization: steel. â€Å"Before the industrial revolution, buildings with multiple stories were supported solely by their walls† (Modern Architecture). With a much more urban society beginning to form, a need for bigger and taller buildings developed. Because of this, a phenomenon known as vertical urbanization began to take hold of cities worldwide. Vertical urbanization literally means building upward, as in making buildings taller rather than making a larger quantity of smaller buildings. The use of vertical urbanization saves vast amounts of land, and is much more economically beneficial than traditional horizontal urbanization. Vertical urbanization rendered the practice of resting all the weight of a building on its walls completely obsolete, and made steel arguably the single most important product to be bought and sold on a worldwide scale. The mass production of steel was the main driving force behind the ability to build skyscrapers during the mid 1880s† (Building Design/Architecture). â€Å" A combination of steel and reinforced concrete allowed for the building of skyscrapers† (Sreekanth 1). The steel frame provides stability throughout the skyscraper while evenly distributing the weight of the building. William Le Baron Jenney is credited with building the first skyscraper in America, in 1884. Soon after, skyscrapers would begin to take over downtown and commercial areas of most major cities worldwide. Thanks to the industrial revolution, steel was made readily available, and allowed for the incorporation of skyscrapers into the urban landscape. From the beginning of civilization to right before the nineteenth century, architecture was just as much of a form of art as painting a picture is. For every building constructed, a specific plan would be formulated by an architect and the construction would follow the architect’s vision, thus creating a one of a kind structure. But as the Industrial revolution gripped the world, the artistic aspect of architecture essentially disappeared. .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873 , .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873 .postImageUrl , .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873 , .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873:hover , .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873:visited , .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873:active { border:0!important; } .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873:active , .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873 .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u4b6eaf700aa5962f9beddc35a2adb873:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: History of Graffiti EssayFor the most part, buildings were standardized; meaning that parts used for construction would be mass produced resulting in a very homogenous look for buildings of the same functionality. Construction companies would focus on building cheaper and faster rather than originality or making buildings pleasing to the eye. Even if some artistic aspects were to be added for visual purposes, they would be from a production line with thousands of others exactly like them. For instance, â€Å"All the beams and columns were mass produced were mass produced to standardized designs† (The Industrial Revolution 1080-1900). This shows how even columns that were supposed to be representing traditional Roman architectural style were stripped of all craftsmanship and originality. Even so, architects and their skills were still needed. â€Å"Architects to design canals, tunnels, bridges, and railroad stations were in high demand† (Design Presentation). The difference was that these architects were generally not hired to create original works, but simply to put up bridges and tunnels that would get the job done. Some architects however, did not feel inclined to conform to the new phenomenon of industrial architecture. Many architects separated and formed their own factions dedicated to restoring the art to architecture. One such group, called â€Å"The Royal Institute of Bristol Architects, tended to focus on designing art galleries, houses for the rich, law courts, libraries, and so forth† (The Industrial Revolution 1780-1900). Due to such factions being created, a divide began to emerge between the two separate types of architects. As the human race continues to progress, the architecture created by us continues to change and evolve to fit our needs. The Industrial Revolution was a time period of critical change that overall caused architecture to change as well, for the better. Besides losing some romantic characteristics, architectural practices changed to better suit the needs of humanity due to the Industrial Revolution and architectural practices will continue to evolve to meet the demands of humanity for as long as humanity exists. Bibliography: â€Å"Building Design/ Architecture – The Industrial Revolution-new Materials.† Science.jrank.org. Net Industries, n.d. Web. 11 Feb. 2014 â€Å"Impact of Industrial Revolution on Architectural Design.† Designpresentation.com. DesignPresentation Associates, Inc, 10 Oct. 2012. Web 13 Feb. 2014 â€Å"Modern Architecture.† Library.thinkquest.org. Oracle Foundation, n.d. Web. 13 Feb. 2014. P.S., Sreekanth. â€Å"Impact of Industrial Revoltuion on Architecture.† The Archi Blog. N.p., 2 June 2011. Web. 13 Feb. 2014. Architecture The Industrial Revolution. M9-Architecture and the Industrial Revolution: Art Appreciation. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2014. Structures and Technolgy. Boundless. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2014.  . The Industrial Revolution 1780 1900. Berkeley Methodology. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Apr. 2014.

Free Essays on Absolute Power

Absolute Power? â€Å"†¦slavery can change a saint into a sinner,† (Douglass, pg 142). The question is can that really be true? Could the power behind slavery be that corruptive? In My Bondage and My Freedom Fredrick Douglass makes the claim that slavery can be just as bad for the slave-owner as it is for the slave. Realizing that the physical torments were no where near same Douglass examines the mental turmoil’s that were experienced by the slaveholders. But what does that have to do with power? Douglass claims that this anguish on the slaveholders was brought on by slavery and the power it contains. This power was so strong that it could turn any kind hearted person into a cold uncaring human being. However, Douglass seems to neglect the idea of human nature, he looks only at the idea of how the power uses the people instead of how people use the power. It is not power that makes a person bad but it is a person that can tarnish and abuse a power. Fredrick Douglass uses his first master to support his claim. Describing his constant unhappy state; with staggered movements and low mutterings. At a war with his own soul and the world around him was how Douglass described him to be. Douglass seemed to think that this inner battle was caused by a great struggle between kindness and the urge for the power. There were other possibilities however, that Douglass seemed to overlook. His master’s problems may not have been caused by a power struggle at all. He may have been suffering from some sort of mental aliment such as depression or schizophrenia, or he might have just been an abusive alcoholic who took everything out on his slaves. There are endless amounts of possibilities for a cause behind this mans his awkward actions and harsh treatment of his slaves. The point is that Douglass only seemed to look into one option without surveying the rest. Another supporting experience with Douglass’ claim was his experi... Free Essays on Absolute Power Free Essays on Absolute Power Absolute Power? â€Å"†¦slavery can change a saint into a sinner,† (Douglass, pg 142). The question is can that really be true? Could the power behind slavery be that corruptive? In My Bondage and My Freedom Fredrick Douglass makes the claim that slavery can be just as bad for the slave-owner as it is for the slave. Realizing that the physical torments were no where near same Douglass examines the mental turmoil’s that were experienced by the slaveholders. But what does that have to do with power? Douglass claims that this anguish on the slaveholders was brought on by slavery and the power it contains. This power was so strong that it could turn any kind hearted person into a cold uncaring human being. However, Douglass seems to neglect the idea of human nature, he looks only at the idea of how the power uses the people instead of how people use the power. It is not power that makes a person bad but it is a person that can tarnish and abuse a power. Fredrick Douglass uses his first master to support his claim. Describing his constant unhappy state; with staggered movements and low mutterings. At a war with his own soul and the world around him was how Douglass described him to be. Douglass seemed to think that this inner battle was caused by a great struggle between kindness and the urge for the power. There were other possibilities however, that Douglass seemed to overlook. His master’s problems may not have been caused by a power struggle at all. He may have been suffering from some sort of mental aliment such as depression or schizophrenia, or he might have just been an abusive alcoholic who took everything out on his slaves. There are endless amounts of possibilities for a cause behind this mans his awkward actions and harsh treatment of his slaves. The point is that Douglass only seemed to look into one option without surveying the rest. Another supporting experience with Douglass’ claim was his experi...

How to Get Your High School Diploma Online

How to Get Your High School Diploma Online A growing number of teenagers are earning their high school diplomas through the internet. Distance learning is often a great option for students who need to stay home for health reasons, desire to work at their own pace, find themselves unable to concentrate on their work in the traditional setting, or need to schedule their learning around a career (such as acting). Finding an online high school can be a challenge; many schools make big claims but few live up to their promises. Parents generally have two options for their children: private online schools or public online schools. Private online schools function much like traditional private schools, while public schools must follow national and state regulations. Private Online High Schools For the most part, private schools act independently of government regulation. Just like traditional private schools, they create their own regulations and have their own learning philosophy, which varies greatly from school to school. Tuition is often high since parents are charged for all costs related to their childs education, including hardware and software.These high schools may or may not be accredited by the proper regional association. If you choose a school that is not accredited, check with the academic advisers of a few colleges to make sure that the schools transcript will be accepted should your child apply to attend a college.Many well-established universities are beginning to offer online high schools; these schools are probably the best bet since they are tied to credible institutions that have been around for years. A few schools to consider include: Allied National High SchoolPenn Foster High SchoolKeystone National High SchoolChrista McAuliffe Academy OnlineMore online private high schools... Online Charter Schools If your state allows charter schools, you may be able to enroll in an online high school for free. Charter schools are publicly funded but have more freedom from government control than regular public schools. This is one of the best deals out there since public schools are not allowed to charge tuition and are generally accredited by the proper organization. States such as Minnesota and California have provisions in their state laws that permit students to enroll in charter programs that are paid for by the government. Schools Blue Sky in Minnesota offers students the chance to earn a diploma without paying for classes or materials. Choice2000 in California is completely online, completely free, and completely accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges. Some schools even provide computer equipment and hands-on materials free of charge.Find a no-cost program in your area by searching the directory of online public charter schools. Transitioning to an Online Program Whether you choose a private school or a public school, do a little investigating before you enroll your teenager. Interviewing the school of your choice can be a great way to make sure that youll get the resources you need and checking with the correct regional accreditation board can ensure that your school is properly accredited. Finally, make sure your child is emotionally and academically prepared to learn through the internet. Many students struggle being away from social events and friends and have difficulty avoiding the many distractions in the home. But, if your teenager is prepared and you choose the right school, online learning can be a great asset to her future.See: Online High School Profiles

Radiation and Thermal Conductivity Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Radiation and Thermal Conductivity - Lab Report Example The third experiment involved the verification of Stefan Boltzmann law and the general realization was that there exists a direct proportionality between the intensity of radiation and the ration between emitter temperature and ambient temperature to factor four (?4). The fourth experiment involved an analysis of Aluminum and Stainless Steel. During the analysis the general realization was that the thermal conductivity of Aluminum was that the thermal conductivity of Aluminum. Introduction Radiation can be defined as the situation arising from the interaction involving heat between a system and the surrounding environment. Consequently thermal radiation involves the study of the electromagnetic radiation emitted as a result of the temperature of the emitter with regard to the dual-wave particle nature of electromagnetic radiation (Mahan, 2002). According to Mahan, studies of Heat have led to the realization that heat is an energy that occurs as a result of energy variations between a system and its surroundings. The basis of the experiment was to conduct an analysis on the various characteristics of thermal radiation as a form of heat transfer and the characteristics are applicable in real life situations. The objective of the first experiment was to study the relationship between the view factor designated F and the intensity of the radiation measured in terms of the temperature. The second experiment was aimed at validating the postulation that there exists an inverse proportionality relationship between the source of heat and the surface. The third experiment was aimed at validating the Boltzmann law which is mathematically expressed as: qb = O( Ts4 – Ta4 ) The fourth experiment was aimed at comparing the thermal conductivity of two different metals. Literature Review Apart from conduction and convection heat can be transferred via radiation. The major difference between radiation and the other forms of heat transfer is that radiation can travel in a vaccum because unlike conduction and convection that require molecules, radiation does not require molecules. Radiation occurs via elecgtromagnetic waves. According to Theodore (2011) any system that has a temperature greater than absolute zero is an emitter of thermal radiation. Theodore outlines that the amount of radiation given out by a given system depends on both the temperature and the charatceristics of the surface. In essence, the undertanding of thermal radiation requires an understanding of the electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic radiation is an occurrence experienced when the atoms of a system become excited from their dormant state so that they acquire enough internal energy to begin emitting the radiation. Am example of a biological phenomenon that depends on radiation is sight. Although we are not able to see the electromagnetic waves our eyes are able to detect the waves and the ability allows us to percieve the images of the objects around us. Although radiati on can be approached from the particulate aspect, scientists have since found it more convenient to approach radiation from the wave aspect. According to Kubota (2007), scientists now approach radiation as involving emission of wavelengths by solid particles. In the study of black body radiation, scientists have also

Moral luck Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Moral luck - Essay Example Concepcion (2002) describes the "standard view of responsibility" whereby "it is unjust to hold a person morally responsible for that which she did not control. Agents deserve to be morally appraised or held liable only for that which they controlled" (455). The problem this poses is that at some level it can always be argued that a situation was outside of a person's control. There will invariably be some uncontrollable factor that, when joining the confluence of other factors over which a person did have control, it can be argued was the cause of any given scenario. For example, if a person driving a vehicle strikes a child who suddenly runs into the road, it might be argued that the person could have been paying closer attention and thereby braked sooner, or should have been driving more slowly. On the other hand it could be argued that a reasonable person under the circumstances could not have predicted the child running into the road, and therefore this was just bad luck and the driver should not be held responsible. This epitomizes the concept of moral luck. To what extend does a random, uncontrollable occurrence relieve a person of moral responsibility for a harm done Concepcion goes on to argue that accepting the standard view of responsibility "is tantamount t... never morally responsible, show that luck is not ubiquitous or at least that ubiquitous luck is not moral, or show that ascriptions of responsibility can retain justice despite the omnipresence of luck" (455). The implication is that it does not make sense to avoid assigning responsibility simply because luck played a role in the moral dilemma, since luck will virtually always be a factor to some degree. This would logically mean that nobody is ever morally responsible for anything. Paradox of Moral Luck and Moral Responsibility The paradox, as Thomas Nagel (1979) describes it, is that individual moral responsibility is possible even though luck is ubiquitous. We hold a person responsible for actions taken within a scenario he/she did not bring about. It is possible for a person to be morally blameworthy even though the bulk of the circumstances bringing about a scenario were entirely outside of that person's control. Degrees of control are virtually irrelevant, as proximate causation of uncontrollable variables fails to offer any relief from a person's moral responsibility for actions taken within any given situation. Consider the case of a soldier who voluntarily enlists in the U.S. Marine Corps in the hopes of being deployed in Iraq to fight in the war on terror. This person, after months of grueling patrols in Baghdad watching his fellow marines get killed by improvised explosive devices, decides to take revenge by entering the nearest civilian residence and shooting up the women and children inside. Then consider the kid who had his sights set on college but was instead drafted into the U.S. Army during the Vietnam War and becomes so worn down by the war and numbed to killing that he partakes in a massacre of civilians at Mai Lai. The former soldier chose to

Uses and Gratification Theory

Uses and Gratification Theory Before undertaking any form of production, or even to monitor the output of media text that has been generated, some sort of audience research has to be undertaken to measure the output of that particular product, for the purpose of this essay, I will be focusing on uses and gratifications, and the availability on the internet and the ability to record programs. Uses and gratifications theory first came to light in the 1940s, with the height of radio broadcasting, but later developed further in the early 70s with Katz, Blumler and Gurentich. The sudden interest came to light with having the first generation to grow up with a wider range of media abundance, the opportunity to have, print, radio and most of all television. The majority of the research that was conducted in the audience research environment was more focused on the effects of media exposure rather than what is done with the media text to the environment it is broadcasted to. Having this open question allowed for researches to have the ability to look in to the way the people deal with this text and what in turn is done with it. the social and origins of needs which generate expectations of mass media or other sources which led to differential patterns of media exposure, resulting in need gratification and other consequences, perhaps mostly unintended ones(Bulmer, j, Katz, E, 1974) Uses and gratification theory was developed to ask how mediated text is used by the consumer, rather than what media dose to the consumer (Katz, E. 1959), the theory asses the users as a active audience member rather than a passive one, this mean that the user will use specific text to gain the valuable knowledge that they are actively seeking from the program or text that they may be consuming for a purpose (Katz, E et al 1974) The approach suggests that people use the media to fulfil specific gratifications. This theory would then imply that the media compete against other information sources for viewers gratification. (Katz, E., et al, 1974) The rise of media available to the general public has become overwhelming, from newspapers to the internet, In turn the audience becomes more dependent on media and the consumption of it, this also means that there is no specific scheduling and timetabling of programs, with the rise of being able to plus or record programs allows the independent user to be able to watch programs that they feel interested in and in turn to use this to generate the gratification method, through the information that they have gathered from the consumption of that text. Blumler and Katz believed that the media text available was used in many different ways, all depending on the individuals preferences to as why they have chosen to openly accept this information that has been generated by the producer, this in short shows that the user has the ability to chose what they want to be exposed to, and in turn this gratify the users need, be it social or informational. (The Uses of mass communication; current perspectives on gratification theory, Katz, E et al 1974) Critics use to refer to the audience as passive, ignoring the fact that they are more able to chose what they what to consume, uses and gratifications sees them more as an individual and able to reject information that they see as not to be necessary to their daily life, knowledge allows the user to be more socially accepted, having information to use in streams at work or social gatherings. The flip side is that, the individual uses the role of media to generate some sort of escapism, to substitute part of time to immerse them selfs in text that may in some ways resemble their lifes, and generates satisfaction to be portrayed in a mass text, this is where the programming timetable that they have made using the plus system comes in to play to create a personal stimulation or enjoyment through the content that has been gathered for entertainment purposes, with the technology that is available in this day and age. (Morley 1992). Either way the information that each individual may receive from the information that they may have seeked out or stumbled upon can be decoded in different ways, this is all down to the way each person interprets that information to meet there needs (Blumler and Katz 1974). The content that is put together by the produce to send out a specific meaning can be decoded in many ways, this is down to many aspects of that person(s) life, it could result in the way they are bought up and the influence that are attachà © to that upbringing, also added to the social class that they are from and the people that they may be associated with, and finally the more wealthier they are can also result in what they may be exposed to and how they take it in, (www.rlwclarke.net). Uses and gratification is a method that allows for a progressive approach in audience research, but with limitations, this area focuses more on the individual, and the way they are affected by the text that they are exposed to, allowing for the individuals point of view, but with the internet and the more use of recorded programming, the over sighting of scheduling has changed, this could mean that the exposure to material is down to the persons preference, and the dismissing of others, i.e. sops because they may feel as though it is a waste of time and references them in no way. With the rise of the internet and the ability to record shows, allows for the user to generate their own gratifications from the chosen exposure of material, allowing the individual to immerse them selfs in the word of their choosing, social escapism is the way that everyone can be in there little cave and gather information that will become useful to their daily lifes, be it for work or social interaction. With the availability of multiple media platforms, allows for the individual to become more dependent on their expose to their specific media preference, this means that the person will become media oriented to be knowledgeable in their social environment, also at the same time dismissing those that do not portray them (Ball-Rokeach, et al 1973) Altered the structural relations among traditional media such as print and broadcast and unites them around the defining technologies of computer and satellite (Carey, 1998) To end it will be easy to say that, every day the choices available seem overwhelming to an individual that, but searching for the information that you may be interested in is not, have the ability to have a internet enabled phone or, a broadband enabled pc, will allow for quick and on the move dosage of knowledge. This builds for a framework to start the daily day of before being socially intractable with the foundations of things to talk about, or with feeds being directed to your mobile then accessing face book to arrange meetings and gathering information of others. For example I like dance music, so I might access the internet to find new information on musicians or DJs, and this will then in turn be repeated in my social group as a conversation started. To match ones wits against others, to get information and advice for daily living, to Provide a framework for ones day, to prepare oneself culturally for the demands of Upward mobility, or to be reassured about the dignity and usefulness of ones role. (Katz, Blumler, Gurevitch, 1974)

Islamic Civilazation

Islamic civilization (Midterm) Before 610 (AD or CE): pre Islamic Period Landscape Desert: Arid landscape What made life possible: Camels (endurance and several images in the Qur’an), horses Nomadic way of life: from the highland and to lowland (movement): looking for water and pastures the camel made life in the arabian peninsula possible: he made the mvt & trade possible Transhumance: mvt from high to lowl depending on the season fetching for water & grazing. this mvt was made possible thanks to humans & animals pockets of sedentary life in 2 main cities:YATHRIB: Oasis: water makes life possible: many palm trees MECCA: it is where the Ka'ba is located (hajj) + trade because when people come to worship their gods, they bring goods to exchange†¦ (religion + trade) Customary laws: â€Å"3orf† transmitted orally from generation to generation: each tribe respect each tribe’s land Social organization Smallest unit in Arab society: Nuclear family (parents + child ren + concubines) lives in BAYT Polygamy is lawful from a religious point of view (4 wives) Before 610, women had so status & were considered as property that you own.Female infanticide (bury the female babies because the families want male heirs) Patriarchy: male dominate the state (society) Extended family: several tents close to each other: â€Å"Dar† Several extended families: Clan (Hashim: clan of the prophet) Several Clans: tribe (Quraysh: tribe of the prophet) Several tribes: confederacies: union (Qahtan & Adnan) â€Å"Asabiyya†: group solidarity: defend the members of your group against violence or aggression. Retaliation: â€Å"eye for an eye† the system of justice that was based on the concept of ‘asabiyya. Belief system – Monotheists: Jews, Christianity and Islam Polytheism: believe in many gods – Paganism: believe in animate (cow) and inanimate (rock) – Atheism: believe in any God – Idolatry: Form of polytheism: beli eve in idols (statues) Life in Makkah – HUB: meeting place – KA’BA: market place and shrine (360 idols) – Habitants: oral society – Mu’allaqat: put famous poems on the KA’BA (platform for poets to come & talk about their tribes: self-promotion) – Bibliography of the prophet: â€Å"Sira†. He was orphan: impact on his life in Sira -Life of the prophet – 570: the year of the elephant and birth of the prophet in the tribe of Quraysh.During that year, Abraha, the king of Yemen marched on Mecca with his large army and elephants in order to destroy the Ka'ba but his elephant(s) stopped at the boundary of Mecca and refused to enter. – His parents: Amina and Abdullah: his father died before he was born and his mother when he was 6 -Orphan: starting at disadvantage, he was from the Quraysh tribe raised by his grand parents (Abd al Mutalib and Fatima) – He was sent to the desert: healthy physical and psychologi cal conditions to raise children – Hamza: his uncle played a mentor role He was being prepared for something big, kind of divine protection even before receiving the message – He was know for his honesty, generosity and anti-corruption – Nickname: Al Amine, the trustworthy in Mecca – His inheritance: a slave â€Å"Baraka†, who was a little older than him – His spent most of his time in the cave of Hira thinking and wondering about the meaning of life – He was against polytheism – He is the seal of the prophets (last one) – 2 major stories: The night journey (621): Muhammad’s travel: The Isra and Mi'raj: Muhammad travels on the steed Buraq to â€Å"the farthest mosque† where he leads other prophets in prayer.He then ascends to heaven where he speaks to God, who gives Muhammad instructions to take back to the faithful regarding the details of prayer. The story of the black stone: before Islam, the Ka’b a was restored many times and Muhammad had the honor to put the stone inside the Ka’ba. all clans wanted to have the honor to put the stone in the Ka'ba and they were ready to fight for the privilege but then, Muhammad advised them to put the stone in a cloth and have a member of each clan pick up a corner of the cloth and take it to its place when Muhammad took it and placed it. He married Khadija in 595, first wife and only wife until her death. She was successful and from the clan Assad. She was a business woman and impressed by his integrity – He spent most of his life as a shepherd – He lost his wife and uncle: 3am al Houzn or the year of grief – House of the prophet: wife + 4 daughters (Fatima, Zaynab, Ruqaya, Umkaltoum) + cousin (Ali) / he also had 2 sons who died in infancy – Abu Talib (uncle): never converted to Islam but still protected his nephew (the prophet) General dates 10 – 632: Revelation of the Quran. Muhammad receives call to prophethood through first revelation of the Qur'an, continues to receive prophecies for 22 years. Khadija is the first to believe in Muhammad's prophethood, becoming first convert to Islam. 611 – 613: the message was kept secret 614: First Hijra of 83 families (early muslim community) to Aksum (Abyssinia) because the king Negus Armah was tolerant and just. He welcomed the muslims and protected them (the prophet wasn't part of the journey).Purpose: survival of islam. Reaction of Meccan society to call to prophethood: the polytheists were very resistant because islam means no more poly + all idols have to be destroyed = people would stop coming to Mecca = no trade Abolishm't of usury (RIBA: loan by excessive interest) while they are benefiting from it Some Meccan clans didn't want the Hashim clan to gain power and rise Islam was revolutionary for another category of people since the religion promotes equality: : poor, women, slaves, orphans†¦ 19: deaths of Muhammad's w ife (Khadija) and uncle (Abu Talib), leaving Muhammad without a protector; he tries to leave Mecca 622: Second Hijra of early muslims to Medina. The city welcomed him because of his good reputation: trustworthy arbitrator, wise, charismatic†¦ (between 614 & 622, the msg was growing & the power of the prophet as well. The other clans of mecca decided to boycott the Hashim clan: no trade, marriages†¦); 1st year of islamic calendar. 632: Death of the prophet The clans of medina: Aws + Khazraj = the helpers/Ansar ; the migrants ; jewish clansProphet at war A chapter came in the Qur'an giving permission to Muslims to fight back because they were oppressed only because they believed in Allah. Jihad: â€Å"strive, effort, struggle† to follow Islam; can include defense of the faith, armed struggle, holy war.  °The lesser Jihad: outer: defend yourself against aggression  °The greater Jihad: inner: the one all muslims are required to perform on a daily basis (how to becom e a better muslim and person) AND °Jihad as ind duty: prayer  °Collective duty: prayer for the dead 624: BadrAttack on Meccan people (caravans). muslims were outnumbered but victorious 625: Uhud It was almost a defeat. Muhammad was almost killed. In fact, the Meccans decided to withdraw believing that he was dead. Death of Hamza (prophet's uncle) 2 Jewish clans of Medina have been expelled because they were communicating secretly with the Meccans 627: Ditch = Khandaq Muslims victorious over meccans and bedouin mercenaries; Muhammed consolidates leadership in medina; Aisha accused of adultery in â€Å"Affair of Necklace†, but exonerated by Qur'anic revelation 28: Truce of faith Hudaybiyya Treaty of Hudaybiyya: Muslims are allowed to come to Mecca to perform pilgrimage (Hajj). The war stopped for 10 years 630: Opening of Mecca – Opening of Makkah. Became Muslim city: all this idols were destroyed. It was opened because someone broke the truce and attacked a muslim. T hey didn't kill the enemies & didn't burn the city. The 5 pillars of Islam: 1. Profession of faith 2. Prayer 5 times a day 3. Zakat (2. 5% of your assets) 4. Fasting during Ramadan 5. Hajj Rightly guided Caliphates Abu Bakr: 632 – 634 32: death of the prophet who didn't explicitly name his successor. He gave signals: Abu Bakr he used to lead the prayer when the prophet was sick + was the head of the delegation of the Hajj: when the prophet had health issues + another problem was that the revelation stopped so from that point on, there was human elaboration of shari'a During his period: wars of Apostasy = â€Å"Ridda â€Å" Many people (Bedouins) stopped paying â€Å"Zakat† when the prophet died. He became firm toward these people because he was worried the situation would end up becoming mass defection.The whole establishment of Islam could collapse. One of the figures of the Wars of Apostasy was â€Å"Musaylima†. He was killed during the battle of â€Å"Al-Y amama†: which put an end to the Wars of Apostasy† (633) Proselytizing: illegal for a non-Muslim to influence people to convert to another religion â€Å"Sabiqqa†: He was one of the first men to convert to Islam Known for his piety and generosity Father in law of the prophet He chose the name â€Å"Khalifa† when he became caliph He nominated Umar as the following Caliph on his death bedUmar: 634 – 644 – Commander of the Faithful: â€Å"Amir Al Mu’minin† – Charismatic and known for being impulsive + always available & approachable – Military guide, actively involved in Futuh (openings) – Cities conquered by Islam during the caliphate period of Umar: Damascus (636) and Jerusalem (638) – Dhimma: non-muslims have the right to live in Dar Al Islam in return they need to pay Jizya & they are exempted from Jihad (freedom of worship, freedom of movement, freedom of ownership) In 644, Umar was faithly injured so he appointed the comity to elect the next caliph: ‘Uthman Accomplishment of Umar Muslim troops: Egypt / Iran Initiation of a taxation system and establishment of treasury Creation of a welfare system (assistance social) The recording of the beneficiaries Institution of the judicial system: appointed the 1st judge Adopted the Muslim calendar (622 = First year) Uthman: 644 – 656 He got the idea of gathering the Qur’an Wealthy Meccan person He is from the Umayya clan Know for his piety but lack of charisma.He was old when he became caliph Easily manipulated by the leading members of the clan of Umayya He appointed members of his clan in key positions, which made the Meccan population very angry especially the early converted. It was a turning point: a group of rebels from Egypt came to his house and killed him in 656. Beginning of FITNA = Civil War Official copy of the Qur’an: All Qurans available in the world today are exactly identical to the Uthmani versi on Ali: 656 – 661 Cousin and son in law of the prophet. His sons: Hassan and Husayn Sabiqa: 1st teenager to convert to IslamHe faced 2 opponents 1: There was animosity and bitterness between Aisha and Ali. Aisha went to Basra in Irak and tried to steer the population against Ali. But she failed and her movement was crashed during the battle of the camel. 2: Umayyad movement under the leadership of Mu’awiyya. He was a key figure in Umayya clan. He made Uthman appoint him as the governor of Sirya Mu’awiyya: he wanted to become a caliph. According to him, Ali didn't deserve to become caliph because he failed to arrest and prosecute the killers of Uthman. Mu'awiyya had people joining his cause & supporting him.The 2 armies (Ali and Mu’awiyya) met in Siffin (name of the battle and the place). Both parties decided to ceasefire and tried to negotiate but the problem was that 12000 members of Ali’s army defected and attacked him because they didn’t agree with his decision. They were called the Kharijites (seceders) Arbitration: Tahkim 657-661: false peace between both armies. The battle of Nahrawan: opposed Ali with his men and the Kharijites. They wanted to kill Ali and Mu'awiyya but Mu'awiyya was always protected and Ali didn’t take the appropriate measures and was killed in 661.Muawiya declared himself Caliph and instituted the dynastic caliphate. The death of Ali marked the end of the rightly guided caliphate PERIOD Ali had two sons: Hassan (who renounced everything in exchange of a secured retirement) and Husayn (when Al Yazid took over, he fought him with a small army but was killed in 680 during the Battle of Karbala) Caliphate: Khilafa Mutawakil: Al Mou3tazila: doctrine that he applied in the whole empire – Medina, Kufa and Damascus – Medina: under the rightly guided Caliphate (the 1st 3 and the prophet) – Kufa: Ali Damascus: When Mu'awiyya declared himself caliph Islam is against any sort o f division. Ideally, the muslim community should remain as one block. Muslims: ?Sunni (majority of Muslims: 93%) ?Shi'ite (7%) ?Kharijites (less than 1%) The institutions of the Caliphates I – Rightly guided Caliphates 632 – 661 II – Umayyads 661 – 750 III – Abbasids 750 – 1258 I: The powers of Caliphs: 2 main powers: – expansion of Islam (fighting apostasy / Jihad (Futuh) – Implementation of Shari’a (Islamic law) II & III – Growth of the empire and creation of the organization (6 powers)To guard religion against innovation (Bid’a) in religious matters To participate in formulation of doctrine but not in the formulation of law (judges are in charge of that) To lead the Friday prayer in the greatest mosque of the city (but with growth of empire, beginning of delegation) To lead military campaigns (Futuh) to defend the empire (also delegation to high officers, military leaders†¦) To ensure the normal fun ctioning of the Judiciary system with the nomination of judges To ensure the well-being of the state through tax collection and expenditure of this tax on garden, monuments, helping the poor, etc†¦ Qur’an – Actual word of God – Revelation: Wahy – from 610 to 632: This word of God is revealed to the prophet. – The revelation was depending on circumstances & it was not chronological – God does not speak directly to mortals. There is always some sort of intermediary. – Prophet had scribes (secretaries) and was involved in the classification and the arrangement of the Qur’an – Abrogation: Naskh – word translated and sometimes changed. E. g. the term â€Å"Khamr† is sometimes